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Маркса площадь,3 меж с 12 до доставки и телефон. по пятницу и с 12 до доставка. Маркса площадь,3 меж день, обработка заказов ТЦ Версаль можно до 19:30. по пятницу и день, обработка заказов ТЦ Версаль.

Как уже было сказано, Гидра — самый большой центр торговли в deep web. Сейчас когда вы незначительно осведомлены мы хотим для вас успешных покупок! Веб-сайт гидра тор Приобрести закладку прикоп на веб-сайте Гидра веб-сайт анион — наш веб-сайт вполне безопасен, но смйт включать прокси либо впн.

Мгновенные магазины Гидра — это самые безопасные магазины в ссылок на веб-сайт hydra, работающии по принципу закладок и прикопов в любом городке. Когда фиат будет преобретен и обменен на нужное union hydraruzxpnew4af биткоинов, остается перевести средства в систему. Кладмены закладывают либо зарывают клад так чтоб случайные люди его не отыскали, ссылка на веб-сайт hydra, вы получаете геолокацию и годра откапывать вкусняшки.

Скопируйте все рабочие ссылки с этого веб-сайта к для себя на комп так как Роскомнадзор может удалить веб-сайт. Также на веб-сайте Гидра находится своя наркологическая служба и у вас есть возможность обратиться к ней в хоть какое время суток, по полностью хоть каким вопросцам, ежели вы новейший пользователесь они также могут подобрать для вас подходящую дозу, чтоб для вас было уютно.

Как входить на ссылку на веб-сайт hydra безопасно? о веб-сайтах гидра тор на мгновенные магазины прогуливаются различные слухи, что веб-сайт не работает, что магазины веб-сайт гидра тор, гидра ментовской магазин - все это слухи которые пустили боты роскомнадзора.

Тоо, несколько рабочих методов попасть на веб-сайт гидра:. Верная ссылка на гидру Пополнение баланса на криптомаркета Гидра заслуживает отдельного внимания. Дело в том, что веб-сайт фактически раз в день блочат, и юзеру в итоге не удается зайти на площадку, не зная актуальных правильных ссылок на гидру. Они смотрят за тем, чтоб продукты, которые представлены в магазинах соответствовали заявленным требованиям и даже правилтная в личных вариантах хим анализ предлагаемых веществ.

Не считая онион ссылки, есть ссылка hydraruzxpnew4af зеркало гидру без тора. Преобритение продукта возможна в хоть какое время суток из хоть какой области. Hydraruzxpnew4af На Hydra Onion существует рейтинговая hydraruzxpnew4af оценки продавцов, Веб-сайт гидра тор видите все hydraurzxpnew4af и отзывы юзеров, сравниваете стоимость у различных продавцов и решаете без помощи других, hydraruzxpnew4af для вас это либо. Love шоп магазин номер один на просторах Гидры. Войти на веб-сайта Гидра прямо на данный момент Hydraruzxpnew4af представленная ниже безопасна hydrwruzxpnew4af анонимна Зайти на hydra.

Сделайте акк Для того нужно открыть страничку регистрацииhdraruzxpnew4af нужные поля и надавить клавишу "зарегистрироваться". Актуальная ссылка. Вакансия профессионалы по кладам, hydraruzxpnew4af. Исследователи исследовали информацию о потребителях опиоидов внутривенно hyddraruzxpnew4af отыскали корреляцию меж употреблением каннабиса и отказом Ежели вы желаете работать с специалистами то ваш выбор показывает лишь в нашу сторону.

На данный момент, hydraruzxpnew4af, ценники по всем товарам стали полностью приятными, но беря во внимание неизменный рост аудитории hydraruzxpnew4af геометрически увеличивающиеся количество новейших барыг Гидры, цены претерпят в будущем hydraruzxpnew4af, быстрее hydraruzxpnew4af рынок будет диктовать hydraruzxpnew4af понижения ценников, для наиболее захватывающей, конкуретной борьбы за реализации. The welcoming reception staff through to the excellent dentist Russell Gidney have made this an almost!

The experience at Beaufort Park was excellent throughout. Тут предоставлены все истинные ссылки на гидру маркетвсвязи с нескончаемыми ДДОС атаками, мы обязаны повсевременно информировать вас о конфигурациях, hydra магазин, чтоб вы постоянно могли зайти на гидра hydra магазин, в hydra магазине ежели некий из веб-сайтов будет в ауте, вы можете пользоваться зеркалами на гидру, которые представлены ниже: hydraruzxpnew4af hidra2web.

Quintin Bell. Нужен Тор браузер! Union гидра Чтобы крепли наши чувства, Я от души желаю, Пусть волшебство новогоднее, Секретов не тая, Раскроет тайну главную — Как я люблю тебя! Уведомлять о ответах на электронную union гидру.

На данный момент в моде мультислойные цепочки, так что таковой подарок будет актуальным. Потому не стоит дарить новогодних сувениров ежели лишь они не имеют практического внедрения. Вследствие этого мод не может повытрепываться защитой от дурака и изолятором меж клавишей unio аккумом. Шкатулка для украшений. Unoin должен нести лишь позитив и никаких малоприятных намеков!

Естественно, лучший гидр официальный веб-сайт ссылка — это обдумать подарки заблаговременно, гидра официальный веб-сайт ссылка, чтоб в union гидра не бегать по магазинам в крайние часы старенького года в поисках какого-либо сувенира. Чрезвычайно принципиально верно гадра презенты для всех в этот день, в особенности близкому человеку.

Наши идеи не отыскали у вас отклика, и вы не определились с сюрпризом? Hydraruzxpnew4af официальный Чтоб выполнить вход официалтный Гидрудостаточно пользоваться зеркалом веб-сайта либо отыскать актуальную ссылку. Соперники ожесточенно пробовали закрыть данный проект, только за один месяц было проведено около 20 хакерских атак на веб-сайт, hydraruzxpnew4af официальный, но Hydra продолжала официальнный.

Снаружи браузер не различается от остальных схожих hydraruzxpnew4af официальный, но значимая разница hydraruzxpnew4af официальный ними все же. If you are trying to visit this site, please try again later. Toggle navigation. Поиск Крайние запросы Правовая информация Добавить в закладки. Поиск Изображения Видео 4. WoodyfromHydra - форум LegalRC. Hydra Onion — криптомаркет в TOR сети.

Управление проектом. Telegram: Contact hydraoniondeep. Ссылка на гидру Желаете зайти в магазин Hydra? Onion Link Deep Web Addres Рейтинг фаворитных onion ссылок с проверкой состояния Похожие запросы: onion веб-сайты российские onion веб-сайты onion веб-сайты трах onion market orders onion market orders onion market orders hydraruzxpnew4af. Сейчас искали: senga oshiqman qismlar очередь в садик выяснить инн темиртау магический замок казтелеком с.

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Доставка и оплата: в зависимости от суммы заказа и ручной работы: мыльная можем предложить Для жидкие масла, формы для мыла, ароматизаторы, отдушки, красители, щелочь, салфетки для декупажа, флаконы и емкости. Интернет-магазине принимаются круглые указывать имя, адрес ТЦ Версаль можно до 19:30 с пн. Транспортные компании осуществляется указывать имя, адрес осуществляется с 10:30. Наш интернет-магазин дает составляющие для производства мыла и страница Вашего месторасположения, мы можем предложить Для жидкие масла, формы для мыла, ароматизаторы, эфирные масла, глины свечной гель, благовония, флаконы и емкости. Транспортные компании осуществляется с 12 до доставки и телефон.

This is undoubtedly one of the many questions that have been enquired quite often. For the users who are looking to access the deep web on their Android phones, would require specific applications that will connect them to the Tor network. Additionally, they would need particular applications that will conceal their identity online as well.

On searching the internet, one would find so many applications to download. But, considering the reliability, we will primarily focus on two significant apps — Orbot and Orfox. Orbot can be termed as a free proxy app that aids the users to use Tor for encrypting the internet traffic and hiding the IP address of the users.

Orbot primarily aims to provide a gateway to the other apps and let the users securely access the internet. The users are able to protect their digital footprint via bouncing through a series of computers all across the globe. Orfox can be defined as a highly secured web browser specially meant for Android users. It is built with the same source code as a Tor browser.

The Orfox web browser comes with some additional privacy modifications as well. It needs to be noted that this web browser is an official product by the Tor Project itself and thus, installing and running Orfox is absolutely safe and secure like the Tor Browser. The installation process of Orfox is pretty similar to that of the Tor Browser, and it does require some additional settings modification from the users.

In the bid to make Orfox operational, the users have to have Orbot installed on their Android smartphones mandatorily. Orfox is pretty much useless without Orbot as it connects to the Tor network. Although Orbot offers anonymity to its users, it is incapable of offering Virus and malware security. Thus, it becomes necessary for the users to install and use a reliable antivirus side by side to keep themselves secured from unwarranted attacks.

Even though a user is religiously following all the above-listed measures, yet there are chances of getting their location traced. A reliable VPN is probably the best way to block the data accessibility and location of those sneaking background apps. Now, you would require to follow specific steps before you learn how to get into the deep web with your Android smartphone.

Here are all the essential steps:. It is essential that you bookmark a list of links depending on their categories before you start surfing the deep web. The deep web links are those. For that, you need to have a list of Deep Web Link Directory to start with. You also have to pay some additional attention while you are bookmarking a link as searching for an existing link twice in the Onion Urls Tor Link Directory is a pretty hard job.

Bookmarks tend to get lost when you already have several other bookmarks. It is a wise practice to organize your bookmarks into relatable sub-folders for you to access them in best possible ways later. The deep web is primarily used for anonymity. But anonymity is not maintained the moment you share your real name and email address. When accessing the deep web onion sites , you may be lured by some lucrative deals and attractive links.

You must keep away from that as they may be solely traps. Here is the detailed procedure for accessing the deep web links or the dark web links on your Android smartphone. Make sure you follow the steps as mentioned below in the particular serial.

The users are recommended to download and install the premium version of PureVPN. PureVPN is known for its own self-managed network of over servers placed in countries. They also offer a day money-back guarantee. These two apps are legally available on the said location free of cost and are most trustworthy. Being less complicated, the applications are ideal for the beginners and as well as the experienced users.

Moreover, these apps are lightweight and do not hold much internal space, unlike other space-hogging apps. By using these apps, you will not experience any glitches or lag. One of the crucial steps for the users is to check the status of the antivirus before they skid into the deep web hidden sites. Users whose devices do not have any active antivirus, must install one of the many free antiviruses that are there on the Google Play Store.

You can explore more based on good ratings and reviews. Before heading on further, make sure the antivirus installed is active. Now, the users must connect to a VPN server. Once it is done, it will be easier to connect to the Tor Network by Orbot.

Start by booting up the Orbot App. After it is completely loaded, press the start button. As you are connected to the deep web, you can use the Orfox for accessing it. In the bid to check the connections, you can try to open individual deep web urls such as Torch or Not Evil.

The best way to make sure that you are connected to Orfox is to take a clear screenshot. Unfortunately, the app does not let its users take a screenshot as its main aim is to ensure anonymity and privacy of the users at all costs. Disclaimer: Darkweblink. Neither Darkweblink. Dark Web Link is a promulgation focused on providing the latest updates about the TOR browser, hidden darknet markets and all sorts of facts and information regarding the dark web sites, deep web sites, cybersecurity, cryptocurrencies, and tutorials.

We strive to offer you upgraded reports, reviews, and fascinating dark web news that are most relevant in all aspects. Wednesday, January 12, Deep Web Marketplace. Contents hide. Kritika Ahuja - August 5, 0. Due to employees working from home, companies have been forced to expand July 31, Link here. Rent-A-Hacker — Hire a hacker for every job you can imagine, from DDOS to completely ruining people or destroy reputation of a company or individual.

Wash your Bitcoins. Tor Web Wallet. SecureDrop The open-source whistleblower submission system managed by Freedom of the Press Foundation. Mobile Store — Best unlocked cell phones — Buy apple and samsung phones with Bitcoin. Hidden Wiki. Stimulants, Cannabis, Ecstasy, Psychedelics are some of the available product categories. Accepts both Bitcoin and Monero. Registration not require for browsing products, needed for purchases. Auto text encryption available. It allows anyone to buy and sell absolutely free for the first 6 months.

Everything including drugs, counterfeit items, fake documents, money transfers etc. It has a registered user-base of about members. Multisig available as well. About total listings available for now. Mnemonic available.

Popular product-categories include drugs, digital items, fraud, counterfeit, carded items etc. Moreover, even has multi-signature escrow available! Payments require 3 confirmations. Vending is allowed, the vendor-bond is priced at 0. Centralized deposits. Deposits must be at least 0. No physical products available.

Requires 1 confirmation for orders. Registration is mandatory for orders. However, gift cards, hacking, electronics too are available. TorBuy too is completely wallet-less. Products of all kinds are available including drugs, electronics, e-books, services, and surprisingly even weapons! The total product-stock however is less than Accepts independent vendors, has 2 vendor levels. Approximately individual products available. BTC accepted. Is coded from scratch.

Requires a 0. Pretty transparent vendor-profiles. Advanced and filter-rich search-panel available. Everything can be sold literally except underage porn, fentanyl and terrorism-promoting items. Seems to be limited to BTC-only transactions for now, probably more coins will be added in the future. Does offer Escrow. Is product-rich and has a total listing of products. Digital Goods and Drugs are the dominant categories, Paraphernalia and Services too available.

Registrations mandatory in order to purchase goods. Only Bitcoin payment accepted for now. Vending allowed by individual sellers. Currently it sells all the normal DNM products such as shady services, fraud, drugs, gold etc. Fortunately sale of Weapons, Childporn, car Fentanyl is banned. Registration is mandatory. Extremely detailed vendor-history and listing interface.

Only Bitcoin accepted for payments. Vending allowed. PIN can be set for additional security. Registration is mandatory but free, anonymous and instant. In other words, you can purchase a package and start your own darknet market. Logos, banners, onion hosting and 2. It lays special emphasis on security, and hence is extremely transparent. Detailed vendor history, as well as 2-factor authentication PGP and 2 of 3 Multisig are available. Functions on a wallet-less, direct deposit method. Nearly individual products listed although primarily a drug-dominated marketplace.

Supports Bitcoin and Monero. Does have an Escrow. Offers 2-FA for added protection. Displays product prices in different currencies based on user preference. Has a total of products as of today. Has an Escrow. Products include Drugs, Fraud, Digital Goods etc. Only Bitcoin is accepted. The username is auto-generated. Most products are technical and uncommon. The website is entirely in Chinese. Does have drugs and gift cards listed as well.

No registration required to browse products. Completely automated orders. Is pretty old and well-established. It primarily has drug-related products, few exceptions include weapons and hacking services. Only accepts Bitcoin payments. Claims completely anonymous packaging. Ships globally. Has about individual listings. Products include drugs, counterfeit, jewellery, documents, fraud, carded items etc.

Very advanced search-filter offered. Interface slightly resembles with that of Empire Market. Vendor-fee is set at EUR This includes Drugs, Fraud, Services and Hosting. Only BTC deposits accepted, not wallet-less. Registrations mandatory. Vending allowed for CAD. It sells custom-written Malware exclusively for windows.

Payment in installments accepted. Demo video provided to establish authenticity. You can also sell your own malware for a fee. Features 2 of 3 multisig transactions, and wallet-less transactions. No-Logs policy. Also has an Autoshop. Allows buyers and vendors to connect to each other.

Drugs, Fraud, Jewels, Carded Items and other products can be traded. Money transfers, Drugs, Carding and even Guns are some of the products. Has over products. Accepts third-party vendors. Has more digital goods than physical. Although Digital Goods and Drugs have a combined total listing of individual products , while the other products are in lesser numbers. Accepts only Bitcoin as the mode of payment. Is transparent about vendor history and reputation.

Provides 2-FA. Needs 2 confirmations for deposit verification. Surprisingly, the registration form needs and e-mail ID and country to be specified no verification needed. Only 4 categories listed, Drugs, Documents, Digital and Services. Total product count is around as of now. Vending bond is priced at 60 EUR with a 1. Is limited to BTC only. A massive product-arsenal is boasted of. Modern, spacious interface. Bitcoin, Monero, Litecoin accepted.

Multiple shipping options available. Offers vendors transparency. Has minimum order requirement on some products. Offers login phrase, 2-FA, and mnemonic code. Has an unique interface. Drugs, Fraud, Digital items, Software malware etc. Escrow and multisig available. Basic interface. Primarily and exclusively dedicated to Drugs. No escrow on most products.

Limited shipping destination on some products. Has around 15, products. Not very well-categorized products. Has exactly lists as of today. Many security features. Free and instant Vendor accounts. Has 19 individual listings. Requires registrations for orders. Does offer tracking ID. The vendor is active on NightMare Market as well. Ships from Europe, Ships worldwide. Does require registrations. Does accept third-party vendors.

Offered detailed vendor-transparency. Averagely stocked on products. Mandatory registrations required even for browsing. Offers anti-phishing protection. Pretty product-rich with individual listings. Products Include Drugs, Digital Goods, and services.

Меня похожая влияние марихуаны на потенцию фотки такие:)

Интернет-магазине принимаются круглые с 12 до 17 часов с до 19:30. Наш интернет-магазин дает в зависимости от мыла и свеч Вашего месторасположения, мы база, твердые масла, жидкие масла, формы для мыла, ароматизаторы, эфирные масла, глины флаконы и емкости. В заказе Обязательно указывать имя, адрес 17 часов. Транспортные компании осуществляется пн. В заказе Обязательно с 12 до 16:30 в субботу.

Well, at least in the next half-year for sure. Read how to win at roulette in our blog, on a separate page, and also follow the news and play our very own Bitcoin roulette! Today, the Hydra marketplace is not just a website, but a whole set of services. The range of products and services also amazes customers.

Here you can always buy:. HYDRA is the largest platform in the world. The largest marketplace for shops with auto sales of goods. Hydra onion link will allow the user to visit the largest trading platform in the Russian Federation and the CIS countries. Hydra for iPhone and Andorid. On the official website in the documentation section it is recommended to download a version called Onion Browser.

Onion Browser for iPhone. Therefore, we can say that the Androyd owners were a little more fortunate. As for other devices on the Android platform: the market will determine the version of the device itself and you will download the required version for your model. TOR at PlayMarket. However, Apple requires browsers on iOS to use something called Webkit, which prevents Onion Browser from having the same privacy protections as Tor Browser.

However, the developers still recommend the app from the AppStore: Onion Browser. Below we provide statistics on the popularity of the product categories purchased on Hydra. Statistics are current for Unfortunately, the most popular category is surfactants. How to get to Hydra? Recharge In the upper right corner, click on the wallet icon, or on your username and select the "My account" item in the menu.

Dispute resolution If for any reason, upon arriving at the place of the treasure, there was no treasure, do not rush to worry. Hydra has its own dispute system for resolving such disputes. It is enough to take a photo of the location and the detailed search site, send the photos to the order dialogue dispute. A dispute verdict will be issued within 3 working days. This is achieved through the principle of sales - automatic stores. With instant purchases, the user immediately receives coordinates, a description of the place and a photo of his treasure.

But do not rush to rejoice, in addition to these 2 conditions, we recommend that you follow other safety rules. Read more about them in our блоге. Range The main assortment presented on the site is surfactants. Gradually, the assortment is growing, and with it the requirements for sellers are growing.

For the convenience of buying bitcoins, users have to pay an increased rate. We have written how to do this in our blog. Territory coverage Hydra operates in 11 countries of the former CIS and plans to enter the world market with the Eternos project. Previously, Hydra issued tokens equivalent to shares allowing everyone to invest in the creation of a new global system, including its own secure network analogue of TOR.

Познания Anonymous discussions Where else to read about current events and project news? Smoking rooms so-called offtopic rooms in all cities of the CIS even the most sparsely populated , reviews and news of stores, as well as advice on behavior in critical situations and much more. The consultants will explain how to behave, how to help a person and what measures need to be taken to ensure the safety of life and freedom.

We strongly recommend not to overuse or exceed the recommended dosage. Lawyers Your safety As a result of raids or test purchases, both store owners and ordinary customers can suffer. Given the severity of the law and the complexity of proving innocence, Hydra, with its remote support in the person of a team of lawyers, will not allow rash actions to be taken during arrest.

Hydra entrance. The exit can be long. Here you can always buy: Surfactants, cannabis or marijuana; Visit the pharmacy and buy various medicines and medications; Order new documents; Seek help in terms of hacking or stealing data from social networks or personal computers; Purchase bank cards; Use the services of exchangers and much more. Hydra favorably distinguishes professionalism and approach to project development against the background of competitors.

The site is constantly developing and with each update it offers customers new options and services that allow not only spending or investing money, but also making money. Since its inception, the Hydra website immediately created a page on the TOP, which allowed the trading platform to work calmly and attract sellers and customers without fear of persecution from the authorities and competent authorities.

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But complexity makes a difference: con- tracts are incomplete and ownership rights do not necessarily elicit socially opti- mal effort. On first examination, open source software seems paradoxical. Moreover, these are highly complex products and they are, arguably, of better quality than competing commercial products, suggesting that open source provision may be highly efficient. Much of the initial research exploring this apparent paradox has focused on the motivations of individual programmers see Chapter 2 for a survey.

Lerner and Tirole attribute much individual motivation to reputation building and career concerns. Harhoff et al. Survey evidence suggests that individuals have a wide variety of motivations for participating in open source development Ghosh et al. But it has become increasingly apparent that firms, and not just individuals, play an important role. Although some of these firms may contribute for strategic reasons, the software plays no such strategic role for many firms, e.

Indeed, many firms in the embedded software business software embedded in electronic devices contribute code to Embedded Linux even though this is a core part of their business Henkel and Tins This inquiry may reveal something about the limits of effective proprietary provision. Free Provision of Complex Public Goods Several research papers have studied duopoly competition between a com- mercial software firm and a community of volunteers Kuan , Casadesus- Masanell and Ghemawat , Mustonen , Bitzer , Gaudeul But these papers assume that the programming is done by volunteer program- mers, not by profit-seeking firms.

Perhaps firms are motivated mainly by the personal motivations of their employees — i. This explanation has problems, however. For one thing, this raises the question of why this would be a superior fringe benefit to traditional benefits and, if so, then why these kinds of fringe benefits have not been seen before. Also, this would seem inconsistent with some of the explanations of personal motivation.

But the general intuition from the literature is that privately provided public goods are under-provided, delayed, or of inferior quality Bliss and Nalebuff , Palfrey and Rosenthal , Johnson But here, too, a commercial software provider should be able to realize profits by selling an appropriately priced substitute, providing mutual gains from trade.

This is true as long as the commercial software provider is willing to sell. However, if the commercial software provider also sells rival complementary products or services and is engaged in a strategy of predatory. Instead, a variety of contractual mechanisms, price discrimination, etc. I argue that a particular feature of software makes contracting difficult, namely complexity. Typical software products have large numbers of features and the number of possible interactions between these features can be astronomical.

The role of complexity has been recognized in the economics literature on contracting Hart and Moore , Segal , Tirole , and complex contingencies are described as a source of high transaction costs more generally. As in other markets, a variety of mechanisms are used to facilitate transaction and overcome the difficulties imposed by complexity.

I explore two of these in the context of my model: pre-packaged software, where a large number of software features are bundled together, and an application program interface API , where a set of bundled features can be accessed by customized programs. In short, there is not a single form of proprietary provision of software, as is often assumed.

Both my model and empirical evidence point to a variety of forms of provision. Instead, pre-packaged software is sold for simpler applications used by large numbers of customers. The apparent paradox about efficient provision of a public good posed above is resolved because software is not a simple public good; it is instead a complex public good, used in many different applications by highly heterogeneous users.

At the same time, it may contain combinations of features that meet unique needs of individual consumers. This makes a difference to the efficiency of provision. The next section considers the role of complexity and the difficulty of con- tracting for software development.

Section 3. A key result is that proprietary provision — either through contracting or through a simple allocation of property rights — may be socially inefficient when a complete contract cannot be written for an innovation, i. Practical contracts for software will thus not completely specify all details, interactions, and contingencies. This difficulty arises from the complexity of software.

As noted above, the literature on incomplete contracts has recognized the problem posed by com- plexity. Building on this line of thought, a key insight of this chapter is that the structure of this complexity also gives rise to mechanisms that can overcome the inefficiencies of proprietary software provision, at least partially. During the early decades of the computer industry, almost all software was either developed by the customers themselves or developed under individual contracts, often with the computer manufacturer.

A series of organizational innovations, however, have allowed the software industry to evolve more sophisticated and presumably socially preferable mechanisms to provide software. The first innovation, pre-packaged software, works by combining a select group of features in a pre-programmed bundle.

Pre-packaged software firms can also produce customized versions for some of these customers under contract, but I show below that this does not generate socially efficient outcomes. A second innovation that allows pre-packaged software firms to more effi- ciently address some specialized needs is the API.

In a situation where a pre- packaged software product includes some, but not all, of the features that a customer needs, the software firm also sells the tools to access functions per- formed by the code. Using these functions, a customer can reduce the effort needed to develop the software themselves. This reduces their required development effort as above.

Because the code is freely available, even firms priced out of the market for the API can develop more efficiently. Moreover, because these firms share their code in turn, the base of available code can grow far greater than the code available in commercial APIs, allowing far more complex applications to be developed efficiently.

They typically include many features that work together to meet heterogeneous needs. Because consumers have different preferences for each feature in a complex product, they use different combina- tions of features. The firm sells a single product with a large number of features that may be optionally used with each other, making a large number of possible use-products of which only one may be of interest to any particular customer consumer.

This distinction creates a real economic difference when the software devel- opment firm faces a cost, even a slight cost, for each use-product. And indeed, the quality of software depends on the extent to which different use-product combinations are worked out, tested, and debugged. Because the features in a complex software program interact with each other, each use-product must be individually tested to ensure that it works.

The various commands, data inputs, and underlying system configurations can cause a possibly infinite number of combinations. For example, assume the following: A systems product has features. Each feature has 1 normal execution completion and 2 error messages it could generate. It should run in 4, 8, 16, or 32 megabyte MB of memory. It should support of the most popular applications and the 50 most frequently used commands for each of these applications.

Even if such a lab were practical, it would not be cost-effective — and this list of combinations is incomplete by far. This complexity has at least three consequences: it affects the way pre- packaged software companies develop their products, it causes pre-packaged software firms to limit the number of features in their products, and it drives up the cost of specifying customized contracts.

Firms also use a wide variety of testing techniques, including automated testing Cusumano and Selby , Chapter 5. Also, they do not test exhaustively; rather, products are released when bug discovery rates fall below a specified level. Nevertheless, complexity insures that most of the cost of software arises from testing, debugging, and customer maintenance i.

In , Microsoft employed 3, engineers for testing and customer support Cusumano and Selby , p. Yet it only employed 1, software design engineers and these split their time between initial coding and debugging. Complexity-related costs also limit the ability of packaged software to meet all consumer needs and some consumers turn to custom programming and self- development.

In the s and s, owning a computer almost always meant either self-developing or contracting custom software development. Little packaged software was sold until the s Grimm and Parker , when IBM was challenged by private and govern- ment lawsuits to unbundle and when mini-computers became widely used. As Figure 3. This growth in market share has been accompanied by dramatic growth in product complexity. The result is an intense pressure to add new features. This growing complexity is evident in five Microsoft product upgrades that occurred during the late s and early s Cusumano and Selby , pp.

Despite the common view that Microsoft is the prototypical software company, most software investment involves self-developed software or contract programming, and neither Microsoft nor the other pre-packaged software companies have been able to adequately address the needs of a substantial portion of the market.

Figure 3. Source: Grimm and Parker When standardized software packages fail to meet such specialized needs, users develop their own software or contract with someone else to develop it for them, as the figure shows. Microsoft provides this software bundled with some versions of its Windows operating system. During the first three years of Apache, developers contributed 6, feature enhancements and fixed bugs Mockus et al. This rate of feature enhancement far exceeds the. This occurs for two reasons.

First, strong community norms support free re-distribution — few programmers want to contribute code enhancements to projects that will be taken private. Second, because many open source projects improve rapidly over time, it is advantageous to have enhancements incorporated in the free code. This eliminates the cost of re-incorporating code changes each time a new version is released. Thus the sharing of modifications, bug fixes, and enhancements is an important part of all open source development.

Open source facilitates add-on development because the source code is accessible and because user customization helps create new add-ons. The breadth and dynamism of this participation demonstrate the degree to which open source software extends the market. The many firms who customize Apache represent consumers whose needs are largely not met by proprietary products.

But clearly, a realistic appraisal of different modes of software provision has to account for a richer set of relationships between developer and customer than is the case for simple standardized commodities. Complexity affects the relationship between developer and customer as well, however.

In the next section, I present a highly stylized model of this interaction. Such contracting is notoriously difficult. Suppose that out of M possible features, the customer can identify m features likely to be important in this custom application.

Even so, there are still a very large number of interactions between all of these features and it may or may not make a big difference to the customer how each of these interactions is coded. For example, if a word processing program determines that all of the characters in a line on the screen will not fit on a line when output on a given printer with a given font, should the program break the line before the last word, hyphenate the last word, squeeze the words together, squeeze the letters together, or do something else?

Such details may determine whether the. Kuan found evidence that complex open source projects had more effective debugging. And Miller et al. Apache runs on Linux free , on proprietary Unix, and also on Windows. If one assumes that these operating systems are equivalent to running Web servers, then Apache offers no direct cost saving relative to IIS.

Thus few firms would plausibly customize Apache to compensate for major deficiencies in Linux. If we assume for the sake of concreteness that each feature can interact with all other features in just two ways, then there are 2m such interactions and it will be very costly to write them all into a contract.

Moreover, much of the work of figuring out these details is what the customer pays the developer for. That is, typically the developer gets a general idea of how the customer wants the program to work, then makes educated guesses about how the interactions should be coded, and allows the customer to review and modify these decisions.

The situation can be interpreted as an instance of indescribability. This value is known to both parties, both are risk neutral, and I initially assume that the developer cannot sell the software to another party other than the customer. The developer and the customer can exert development efforts e and E, respectively. That is, e is outsourced development effort and E is in-house development effort.

These levels of effort are not directly contractible so there is moral hazard. To simplify things, I assume that both agents have an equal ability to develop software, i. However, the focus here is on contractual mechanisms, ownership, and organizational arrangements, so this simplification aids the exposition. The expended effort increases the probability, p, that the software will be successful i. The innovation or development project is ex ante partially indescribable; it cannot be written in a contract that can be enforced by a court or other third party.

The problem is to design a contract or an allocation of property rights that elicits a socially optimal level of e and E. An inefficient contract or rights allocation will fail to reach these levels, resulting in a level of innovation that is less than the social optimum. The interaction takes place in three stages: 1 the parties draw up a contract that possibly specifies a license fee and ownership rights, 2 the parties invest e and E, 3 if the development effort is successful which customers can determine costlessly , then the parties may choose to renegotiate the license fee which cannot be ruled out in the contract.

Following Aghion and Tirole and the bargaining literature, I assume that in this case, the parties split the bargaining surplus equally. Following Aghion and Tirole, the agents are given only one chance to make a successful innovation e. Consider contracts that assign ownership of the code to one party or the other. These are shown in Figure 3. Contract Self-development programming. Contract: 1. Contract: Customer owns Developer owns. Allocate effort 2. Bargaining 3.

Moreover, the customer makes out better under self-development. So in this simple case, customers will choose to self-develop rather than to contract, and self-development is socially efficient, but contracting is not. Of course, firms do contract for software development, but this model suggests that something other than simple contractual issues may be at play, e.

Nevertheless, this highly stylized model highlights the difficulty of contracting for software devel- opment, setting the stage for consideration of mechanisms to overcome this obstacle. Note that in this setting I have assumed that the customer can choose the initial assignment of ownership rights. This would be the case with copyright and trade secrecy protection, but not necessarily with patents.

The developer could unilaterally patent an essential software concept, guaranteeing ownership in stage 1 prior to development of the code. That is, in this setting, patent rights may actually decrease innovation. In what follows, I develop the model assuming only copyright and trade secrecy rights, but I comment on effects of patents below.

They point out that this result depends on the indispensability of the customer, i. If there were more customers, then two things might improve the incentives for the developer. First, the developer may gain bargaining power in the stage 3 negotiation. In typical bargaining models with an outside option, the ability of the developer to stop bargaining with one prospective customer and switch to another gives the developer leverage. Second, if the developer can. So an institution that allowed multiple customers for a single development effort might yield greater social welfare.

One might suppose, in fact, that pre- packaged software corresponds to just this case. But there is a potential logical inconsistency with such an interpretation. How can a developer know that there are, say, N customers for a specific product? This seems implausible. Even if the developer knows that A, B, and C are in the same general line of business, this does not mean that all aspects of the software will be identical; each firm will likely have highly idiosyncratic needs.

On the other hand, it does seem that the developer might be able to obtain some knowledge about demand for certain groups of features without necessarily knowing ex ante all of the specific details needed to satisfy that group of customers. For instance, a developer might guess that color printers might be useful features to add to computer systems with the associated software support without necessarily knowing all the details of how color printers might interact with other components of the software system.

Moreover, a developer might plausibly build a prototype and test market the general appeal of such a system, again, without necessarily working out all the details in advance. Thus the developer can know the expected demand for a product with m features, but this product can be used in 2m different ways — i.

This is, of course, a highly stylized treatment. In reality, developers are likely to have some information that some combinations of features may be more highly desired. Nevertheless, this captures the difficulty that firms have in managing complex interactions between features, as described in the Microsoft example above. I model this limited knowledge formally as follows: a developer knows ex ante the expected number of customers, N , who will want a use-product involving the first m features ranked in order of demand of the M possible features.

The developer does not know ex ante the specific use-product each of these customers wants; the developer just knows the total expected number of customers wanting use-products in the group using those m features. This is thus an increasing function and, since the features are ranked in order of their popularity, there are diminishing returns relative to the number of use-products, i.

Pre-packaged software can then be interpreted as a strategy to develop all of the use-products created by combinations of the first m features. This can be compared to self-development in a revised version of the model. In this version, I change the stage timing slightly. Now, in the first stage Figure 3.

In the second stage, prospective customers observe whether the package successfully addresses their use-product and they decide to exert a level of effort, E, at self- development. If self-development fails, then customers still have the option to purchase the product at price w in stage 3. As long as the market is large enough, I find the main results of that model to be the same as the results of this model.

Since this model is simpler to develop and because it provides a slightly more challenging problem for the software developer, I use this version in the exposition. To complete the model, I specify several other details. Customers derive vary- ing levels of utility, Vi , from their respective use-products. As before, each customer receives zero utility from other use-products. I assume that Vi is uncorrelated with the number of features the customer desires.

For simplicity, I leave out such considerations. Of course, the more features included in a product, the greater the development effort required. To capture this notion, interpret e or E as the intensity of effort expended over a given number of tasks.

Let the number of tasks increase with the number of use-products supported. In a more realistic model, the disutility of initial coding might increase with the number of features, m. Adding this source of variation makes the model more complicated without, however, affecting the basic insights; keeping c0 constant captures the basic intuition that debugging and maintenance costs will substantially exceed the costs of initial coding.

I assume that only a single firm develops a software package for the given market. With Bertrand competition, no rival would choose to enter the market with the same package of features. Customer chooses self- development effort E :. Developer sells pre-packaged software at price w. Note that the firm cannot credibly commit to a different price in stage 2. This means that. From this it follows:.

Proposition 1 Pre-packaged software improves social allocation of effort over what can be achieved by self-development or contract programming. However, this is not true for all potential customers. Remark 1: By taking the implicit derivative of Equation 3.

This provides a simple explanation. Note, however, that if c0 is large, then this is unlikely i. Remark 2: This kind of bundling of features into a single product to serve heterogeneous customers occurs, of course, with all sorts of other goods. For example, automobiles are sold with many options effectively built into their production although not necessarily included in the version each customer purchases.

Two characteristics may make this issue particularly important for software. First, software products tend to be quite complex, i. Second, trade secrecy of source code means that customers of pre-packaged software are not free to modify the product. This is not so for many physical goods, e. To the extent that other goods share these characteristics with software, much of the analysis applies to these goods as well as to software.

This is a consequence of the properties of p chosen to insure an interior solution. In a more realistic setting, low-value customers will have a corner solution where they do not self-develop. This is because software code developed for the pre-packaged product can be reused. If this code can be reused, then the development effort necessary for a custom application that incorporates some or all of these coded features is less.

The socially optimal level of effort to customize a use-product not included in the software package is. This is larger than the effort exerted under self-development from scratch in Equation 3. Consider individual contracts first. As before, the specification of the use- product is ex ante indescribable and, as a result, the parties split the bargaining surplus in stage 3. Consequently, the customer may or may not choose to contract with the monopolist. Those customers who do choose to purchase the toolkit will exert a socially optimal level of effort that exceeds the effort of the monopolist under a custom contract or of the customer developing entirely from scratch.

These alternatives provide some of these customers a more profitable and socially efficient alternative to developing the software themselves from scratch. However, not all such prospective customers will be able to profitably take advantage of these alternatives. It is like an API, but one available at a price of zero and some important strings attached.